Essays Relating To The History Of

Occidental Constellations and

Star Names to the Classical Period

A Chronological History of Babylonian Astronomy by Gary D. Thompson

Introduction

The two basic methods which characterise the Babylonian approach to astral phenomena are observation and computation. Both methods are found in the earliest cuneiform texts dealing with astral phenomena (i.e., date to the Old Babylonian Period). Whilst some texts are primarily either observational or mathematical it is common for both methods to be integrated within the same text.

The main sources of the astral knowledge of the Babylonians from circa 1800 BCE to circa 500 BCE are the Enuma Anu Enlil omen series, the circular and tabular "astrolabes" (i.e., planispheres), the MUL.APIN series, and various observational texts (i.e., reports to the kings and the earliest astronomical diaries).

From circa 1800 BCE to circa 500 BCE the main phenomena the Babylonians sought to be proficient with were: (1) the appearance and disappearance of Venus; (2) the duration of day and night; (3) the rising and setting of the moon; and (4) planetary and stellar risings and settings. All appear within the protases of the celestial omens of the 2nd millennium period (i.e., the Enuma Anu Enlil series). The Kassite Period and the Early Period saw the the completion of the omen series Enuma Anu Enlil, the introduction of the circular then tabular star calendars "the three stars each," the compilation of the MUL.APIN series, and the start of a continuing series of observational texts: Reports to the Kings, and Astronomical Diaries.

1. The Sumerian and Akkadian Period (circa 3100-2100 BCE)

Note: Dates for the Early Dynastic (Sumerian) Period vary from 3100-2330 BCE to 2900-2334 BCE. The Neo-Sumerian period is usually dated circa 2100-2000 BCE. The Akkadian Period is usually dated circa 2350-2100 BCE. [In this section I have included some of the earlier speculations of assyriologists i.e., a scheme of lunar houses. In the Post Sargonic/Ur III Period the Sumerian term "house" (é) is used to denote the celestial positioning of the moon (and to all appearances dropped during the Old Babylonian Period). Some of the earlier assyriologists proposed Pre Sargonic/Sargonic Period dates.]

Simple descriptive astronomy. The Sumerians undoubtedly watched the sky and defined and named some of the constellations and planets. Bendt Alster believed astronomical observations could be discerned in Sumerian compositions dating circa 3500 BCE, which refer to the movement of the heavenly bodies and the constellations. He believed that the cyclical return of the planets, (and the sun and moon) played an important role in Mesopotamian religion. Most of the names of celestial bodies were Sumerian throughout the later periods and some of them at least must have Sumerian origins.

Some astronomical features include:

Implementation of the "two ways" as a scheme for the division of the sky?
Incorporation of informal astronomical knowledge into mythical themes.
Names given to the sun, moon and a few stars and constellations.

Circa 3000 BCE

Uruk tablets contain several references to the "Festival of the Morning Goddess, Ianna" and the "Festival of the Evening Goddess, Ianna" - presumably in her identification with the planet Venus (as morning star and evening star).
Development (establishment) of lunar calendar by the Sumerians. At this early date (Archaic Period) the Sumerians were able to regulate an intercalated lunar calendar by inserting a 13th lunar month approximately every third year.

Circa 2700 BCE

The goddess Nisiba [note: early and current spelling Nisiba but now usually spelled Nisaba or Nidaba] hhad a knowledge of astronomy attributed to her that that was used to correct the vagaries of the lunar calendar. Nisiba, goddess of grain and scribal arts is said to measure heaven and earth, to know the secrets of calculation and, together with Suen, to "count the days." Her temple in Eresh was called the "house of the Stars." She had a lapis-lazuli tablet which is sometimes called the "tablet with the stars of the heavens" or "tablet with the stars of the pure heavens." It was kept in her "House of Wisdom." [It is possible that this lapis-lazuli tablet - which was connected with astronomy - was a kind of star-map or symbolic representation of the heavens.]

Circa 2600 BCE

Cylinder A of Gudea: (Reference to heliacal rising of star marking the month - possibly Aldebaran in Taurus. Also, a system of named stars is indicated. [Recognition of Nidaba mul ku-ba as constellation of 'corn-goddess'?])
Cylinder B of Gudea: (Reference to celestial positioning of moon by use of lunar "houses"?) Cylindrical Stone Jar (Elamite) (Bestiary and pantheon iconography that are identifiable - from later Kassite kudurru - as possibly related to the stars.)

Circa 2500 BCE

British Museum Cuneiform Texts: (Early 20th-century British Assyriologists believed reference to celestial positioning of moon by use of lunar "houses". Probably due to early difficulties with the decipherment of texts and their dating.)
Sumerian Literary Compositions: (Several refer to the movements of the heavenly bodies and the constellations.) Cylinder Seal (From Elamite capitol of Susa) (Bestiary and pantheon iconography that are identifiable - from later Kassite kudurru - as possibly related to the stars.)

Circa 2400 BCE

Circa 2400 BCE Sumerian records provide evidence for the government practice of arbitrarily inserting calendar months to keep in order to keep the traditional month of the barley harvest (Nisanu of the Babylonians) in the harvest season.

Circa 2300 BCE

Seal of Adda (Elamite?): (Bestiary and pantheon iconography that are identifiable - from later Kassite kudurru - as related to the stars.)
Sargon of Agade: (Records [omens incorporated in the canonical series Enuma Anu Enlil] dating to Sargon of Agade imply observation of planetary movements and recognition of constellations? Most probably simply back-dated omens.)
Cylinder Seals: (From this period onwards many seals show forms which are possibly identifiable as being related to the stars.)

Circa 2250 BCE

Sumerians possibly systematically name the more prominent stellar objects and develop a scheme of constellations linked to the twelve calendar months.
Start of systematic naming of stars and constellations. (Aids for establishing the months of the Babylonian calendar.) [During reign of Sargon of Akkad?]
Possible evidence pointing to an Ur III origin of at least some constellation and star names. (The Nippur Forerunner to Tablet 22 of Urra = hubullu) lists 2 star names in Sumerian (line 396 having: mul gisz apin; and line 410 having: mul lu2.hun.ga2) which were possibly in use in Sumer and Akkad in the 3rd millennium BCE.)

Circa 2100 BCE

Cylinder Seals: (Sun-Moon-Venus triplet on seals becomes more frequent.)
Circa 2100 BCE Šulgi, king of Ur (reigned circa 2100 to circa 2150 BCE), recorded that he had learned how to calculate the appearance of the new moon while a student in a scribal school.

Circa 2000 BCE

Sumerian Composition "Enki and the World Order": (Possible reference to celestial positioning of moon by use of lunar "houses".)
Celestial divination: (Star names and constellations developed as reference points for the description of celestial omens.)

2. The Old Babylonian Period (circa 2000-1600 BCE)

The first phenomenon the Babylonians sought to master were: (1) the duration of day and night; (2) the rising and setting of the moon; and (3) the appearance and disappearance of Venus. The computation of day and night appeared in two forms. An early form appears in the protases of the Enuma Anu Enlil omen series and also in the circular astrolabes.

Circa 1800 BCE

The rising and setting of the moon (and its phases). (Early Old Babylonian Period. Hammurabi imposed a single official lunar calendar upon the Babylonian Empire.)
First identifiable star-list appears in "Prayer to the Gods of the Night."
The duration of day and night.

Circa 1750 BCE

The Venus tablet (dealing with the appearance and disappearance of Venus and omens, over 21 years).

Circa 1500 BCE

The "three ways" established on the eastern horizon.

3. The Kassite Period (circa 1570-1160 BCE)

Within the protases of the celestial omens of the period (i.e., Enuma Anu Enlil) appear: (1) planetary and stellar risings and settings, (2) daylight lengths, (3) lunar visibility, and the appearance and disappearance of Venus. The moon was also divided into 4 equal sectors for omen purposes; representing the 4 countries Akkad, Subartu, Elam, and Amurru.

The use of heliacally rising stars along the eastern horizon and the introduction of Astrolabe texts.

Between 1400-900 BCE the following things happened:

The composition of the great Omen Series "Enuma Anu Enlil."
Exact observations of the heliacal risings of fixed stars.
Observations of daily risings, culminations, and settings.
Composition of the circular and rectangular Astrolabes before 1000 BCE.
A very primitive representation of the Venus phenomena by arithmetical sequences (Tablet 63 of the great Omen Series).
Calculations of the lengths of day and night by increasing and decreasing arithmetical series (Tablet 14 of the great Omen Series).

Circa 1400 BCE

Observations of the heliacal risings of fixed stars.
Babylonians develop a scheme of 34 heliacally rising stars (and their constellations) associated with the twelve calendar months. (Used by later stars list such as "The Stars of Elam, Akkad and Amurru", and Mul Apin series.)
List of 34 heliacally rising stars. (Basis for (i) Stars of Elam, Akkad and Amurru, (ii) "Astrolabes", and (iii) Mul Apin.) [In Babylonian astronomy the "fundamental stars" were those stars by whose horizon position time and the calendar were reckoned.]

Circa 1350 BCE

Stars of Elam, Akkad and Amurru. (Establishment of system of paranatellonta - simultaneously rising stars on the eastern horizon.)

Circa 1300 BCE

System of normal stars. (Used to mark the positions of the moon and planets across the sky.)

Circa 1250 BCE

Possibly finalisation of the series "Enuma Anu Enlil". (Refers to the Stars of Elam, Akkad and Amurru.)

Circa 1200 BCE

Tabular list of the 12 stars of Elam, 12 stars of Akkad, and 12 stars of Amurru. [Some differences to tabular astrolabes.]
Start of exact observations of heliacally rising stars.

Circa 1150 BCE

Circular "astrolabes." The "astrolabes" (circular planispheres) of the "3 stars each" (12 stars of Ea, 12 stars of Anu, and 12 stars of Enlil).
Start of simple mathematical astronomy.
Planetary movements of primary interest. [Accurate observations of the risings and settings of the planets (and sun and moon).]

Circa 1100 BCE

Rectangular "astrolabes".

4. The Late Assyrian Period (circa 1000-600 BCE)

Note: The Late Assyrian Period is also dated circa 900-600 BCE. This would place MUL.APIN data in the Middle Assyrian Period.

The period from 750-350 BCE saw refinements in the development of non-mathematical astronomy including the introduction of (1) Astronomical Diaries, (2) Almanacs, and (3) the Goal Year Texts.

The systematic observation of celestial phenomena (i.e., "Astronomical Diaries") began in the Assyrian Period and continued without a break into late Seleucid times.
Astronomy of the MUL.APIN series.

The main astronomical achievements of this period are:

Detailed study of the fixed stars, their risings, culminations, and settings.
Calculations of the duration of daylight and the rising and setting of the moon by "linear methods".
Recognition of the zodiac as path of the Moon, the Sun, and the planets.
Establishment of zodiacal constellations.
Position of the zodiac with regard to the zones of Enlil, Anu, and Ea.
The seasons of the year established.
Systematic observation and prediction of eclipses starting circa 750 BCE.
By about 1000 BCE the calendar had become astronomically regulated by the risings of stars and constellations.

Circa 1000 BCE

Babylonian constellations and star names fully developed.
The tabular form of the "3 stars each" (12 stars of Ea, 12 stars of Anu, and 12 stars of Enlil).
Lunar eclipses predicted with reasonable accuracy.

Circa 800 BCE

Astronomical nomenclature established by Greeks for most prominent stellar objects.
Babylonian establishment of rules for lunar and planetary phenomena (written down in Seleucid times in tablet TU II).
Use of water clocks in Babylonian astronomy.

Circa 750 BCE

Dated observations of eclipses in Babylon.
Recognition of ecliptic and establishment of zodiacal constellations.
Use of 18 "counting stars" along the path of the moon to measure the progress of the moon through the month.
Development of "Astronomical Diaries." ["Observational" texts. Record "daily" astronomical phenomena for half a Babylonian year (6 or 7 months). Source of other "observational" texts.]

Circa 700 BCE

Aspects of Babylonian traditional knowledge of heavenly phenomena (i.e., MUL.APIN) not much greater than Hesiod's knowledge of heavenly phenomena.
The stars of the "3 ways" (path of Ea, path of Anu, and path of Enlil) of the MUL.APIN series.
MUL.APIN. [A summary of most of Babylonian astronomical knowledge exclusive of omens, from before the 7th century BCE.] [The MUL.APIN tablets give lists of secondary stars (i.e., to those fundamental stars which rise and set on the horizon) - the ziqpu stars - that culminated (crossed the meridian) at the same time as the more fundamental stars were heliacally rising. This list of ziqpu stars is scientifically important, for it represents a step towards a more reliable measure of time.] Aspects of Babylonian traditional knowledge of heavenly phenomenon (i.e., MUL.APIN) not much greater than Hesiod's
Astronomical compendia: I-NAM-GIS-HAR and MUL.APIN of Babylonian origin, copied in Assyria about 700 BCE.
The definitive constellating of the ecliptic with 12 constellations (connected with the endeavour to reform the fixing of the 12 months astronomically.)
[The system of 36 stars marking the "three ways" give way to a system involving 27-30 "normal stars" (= reference stars) being placed along the ecliptic, to serve as markers for the paths of the planets.]

The series MUL.APIN and the related texts show significant astronomical advances, namely:

The better ratio 3 : 2 of longest day to shortest night.
The primitive calculation of the shadow length of an upright rod (Gnomon).
First steps towards the introduction of the zodiacal signs: constellations in the path of the moon and astronomical seasons.
Determination of time intervals between the culminations of various stars.

Accurate period relations are not to be found in the early texts. For example, the MUL.APIN compendium does not give a single period for the sun, moon or planets, apart from the schematic year of 12 months of 30 days each. The situation changed rapidly during the Persian period.

In the middle of the 8th century BCE astronomy seems to have received a new impetus, as shown by:

Systematic observation of eclipses from the time of Nabonassar (747-735) on. (Start of frequent record keeping regarding lunar and solar eclipses, occultations, etc till 50 BCE.)
Successful predictions of lunar eclipses in the 7th century BCE. These last two points indicate the beginning of a new line of development continued in the Neo-Babylonian and Persian Period, namely the systematic observation and prediction of lunar, solar and planetary phenomena.

Circa 650 BCE

Continuing tradition of daily observation of major celestial events.

5. The Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) Period (626-539 BCE)

Note: Conquest of Assyria by the Chaldeans (inhabitants of māt Kaldu) in 609 BCE - fall of Babylon to the Medes in 539 BCE.

Zodiacal astronomy.

Main astronomical features:

Progress towards the division of the zodiac into 12 signs of 30 degrees each.
Systematic observation of the Moon and the planets, their positions in relation to the fixed stars, their first and last visibility, stationary points, conjunctions, etc.

Circa 630 BCE

Start of accurate systematic observations of the moon and planets and their positions, with respect to the fixed stars.

Circa 600 BCE

Perhaps earliest evidence of Babylonian influence upon Greek astronomy (seen in the names of the zodiacal constellations).
Observations of moon and planets.
Start of developed mathematical astronomy.
The positions of the stars and planets are now always determined with respect to the ecliptic.

6. The Persian (Achaemenid) Period (539-331 BCE)

Note: Persian (Achaemenid) Period (535-331 BCE; fall of Babylon to the Medes - fall of Babylon to the Macedonians).

The astronomy of the Persian (Achaemenid) and Seleucid (Hellenistic) periods has the following typical features:

Systematic, dated and recorded observations of eclipses and lunar and planetary phenomena.
Calculation of Periods.
Prediction of eclipses.
Division of the zodiac into 12 signs of 30 degrees each.
Rise of horoscope astrology.
Development of mathematical astronomy.

The most important achievements of this period are:

Determination of accurate periods for the Sun, the Moon, and the planets.
Calculation of the motion of the Sun, the Moon, and the planets, of eclipse magnitudes and other lunar and planetary phenomena. (These calculations were based upon an admirable mathematical theory.)

The six lunar phenomena that were regularly observed and recorded were:

(1. Observed just after New Moon on the evening of first visibility of the crescent.):

Time between setting of sun and moon on the evening of the first visibility of the crescent.

(2. Observed just before and after Full Moon.):

Time between the last setting of the moon before sunrise and sunrise.
Time between the last rising of the moon before sunset and sunset.
Time between sunrise and the first setting of the moon after sunrise.
Time between sunset and the first rising of the moon after sunset.

(3. Observed on the day of last visibility of the moon in the morning.):

Time between the rising of the moon and sunrise on the morning of last visibility of the moon just before New Moon.

Circa 540 BCE

Increased accuracy of observations of the Zodiac.
Increased accuracy of Periods of the planets.
Establishment of accurate lunar calendar.
Beginnings of applied mathematical science beyond the needs of astrological requirements.

Circa 500 BCE

By circa 500 BCE the Babylonians had accurately determined the various periods for lunar motion (i.e., the sidereal, synodic, draconitic, and anomalistic months).
Astronomical Tables (and Procedure Texts). "Computed" texts. Calculated ephemerides of the moon and planets. The texts consist of "Procedure texts" explaining the method of calculation; and "Ephemerides texts" listing the results of the calculations.
Invention of System A for the [moon and] planets [Jupiter, Saturn, & Mars]. [System A was invented between 610 and 470 BCE. The beginning of the Achaemenid reign 540 to 470 BCE seems most probable.]

Circa 430 BCE

The zodiac of signs invented for use as a reference point in mathematical astronomy.

Circa 400 BCE

[Majority of 48 Greek constellations and star names established.]
Invention of System B for the [moon and] planets [Jupiter, Saturn, & Mars]. [System B was invented between 500 and 260 BCE. The evidence indicates that 480 to 440 BCE seems most probable.]
Accurate methods of mathematical astronomy.

Macedonian Period (331-circa 275 BCE)

Note: Macedonian Period (331-circa 275 BCE; fall of Babylon to the Macedonians - end of era of the Diadochi). [Era of the Diadochi (first generation of important Macedonian military and political (administrators) successors after the death of Alexander) is taken to be 323-circa 275 BCE.]

Mathematical astronomy. The largest and most highly developed part of the theoretical astronomy of the Macedonian period and Seleucid period is devoted to the computation of the new moons.

Circa 320 BCE

Lunar and planetary tables. (In the lunar and planetary tables of the Seleucid Period circa 200 BCE, longitude and latitude are the only co-ordinates used.)

Circa 300 BCE

Developed mathematical theory of planetary motions.
Development of accurate predictions of lunar movement and lunar eclipses.
Beginnings of true mathematical science - grounded in astronomical observations. The multiplicity of phenomenon were able to be reduced to mathematical expressions, and to predict what would happen in the future.
In Seleucid (Hellenistic) times two different systems (A and B) were used to compute the course of the sun and moon.
Almanacs: "Observational" texts comprising monthly reports of certain astronomical phenomena (using zodiacal signs as reference), and covering one Babylonian year.
Normal-Star Almanacs: "Observational" texts similar in structure to the Almanacs but using the "Normal-stars" as reference.
Goal-Year Texts: "Observational" texts containing information for enabling the prediction of planetary and lunar phenomena for a given year.

7. Seleucid (Hellenistic) Period (275 BCE - 116 CE)

Note: Seleucid Period (275 BCE - 116 CE; end of era of the Diadochi - Roman conquest of Mesopotamia).

All classes of Seleucid astronomical texts contain at least some predictions.

Non-mathematical astronomic texts of the Seleucid (Hellenistic) Period consist of: (1) Almanacs, (2) Normal-Star Almanacs, (3) Goal-Year Texts, and (4) Diaries.
[Note: The "Astronomical" Diaries" date back to the Late Assyrian Period (circa 740 BCE) and were the source of the other "observational" texts. The only true observational texts were (1) (Astrological) Reports to the (Assyrian) Kings, and (2) Astronomical Diaries.]

Miscellaneous:

Horoscopes.
Lists of lunar and solar eclipses.

Circa 200 BCE

Ephemerides for the moon and planets.

Return to top of page.

This web page was last updated on: Sunday, May 17, 2009, 10.15 pm.

This web page was created using Arachnophilia 4.0 and FrontPage 2003.

You can reach me here by email:

Return To Site Contents Page