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L: Iranian Constellations
22: Early constellations in Iran
The ziggurat of Chogha Zanbil in Khuzestan Province, southwestern Iran. It is the largest monument in Iran and dates to circa 1250 BCE. It is the best preserved of all the ancient ziggurats. At the time of its construction this part of present-day Iran was part of ancient empire of Elam. Within an ethnological and cultural context the ancient Elamites were close to the Mesopotamian civilisations. However, it is not unusual to come across the claim that the written history of Iran began circa 3200 BCE with the Proto-Elamite civilization and was followed by the Elamite civilization. The ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil was built by the Elamite King Untaš-Napiriša (1275-1240 BCE) near the Elamite capital of Susa. (All ziggurats were built by kings to demonstrate they could perform greater religious deeds than the priesthood.) The ziggurat is a square structure with its base measuring 105 metres x 105 metres. It had 5 levels and it's height is variously estimated but believed by some to have been 52 metres. It has been speculated that it may also have served an astronomical purpose. Ziggurats originally had a cosmic significance. They were an image of the 7 spheres of the world and were also the seat of the Sun-god. The building complex at the site of the ziggurat includes 11 temples, a palace, and burial chambers.
Iran (Persia) is a West Asian country and one of the world's oldest continuous major civilisations. Pre-Islamic Iran can be divided into 4 broad phases: (1) 3200 BCE to 728 BCE, Early history. (The written history of Iran began circa 3200 BCE with the Proto-Iranian civilisation). (2) 728 BCE to 550 BCE, Median Empire (First Iranian Empire). (3) 648 BCE to 330 BCE, Achaemenian Empire (Second Iranian Empire). (4) 248 BCE to 224 BCE, Parthian Empire (Third Iranian Empire). (5) 224 BCE to 651 CE, Sassanian (Sasanian) Empire (Fourth Iranian Empire). Zoroastrianism, the religion founded by Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) in Persia toward the end of the seventh century BCE, played an important role in all four Iranian empires. During the Sassanian era Zoroastrianism was revived and became the State religion. (Attempts to date Zoroastrianism to the 2nd-millennium BCE are without foundation.)
There is plenty of evidence demonstrating Sassanian interest in astronomy, astral iconography and astrology. Pre-Sassanian Empire records for astronomy and astrology are rather meager. Almost nothing is known of the astronomy and astrology of pre-Sassanian Iran. Further, reliable knowledge of Iranian astronomy and astrology is non-existent before the reign of King Shâpûr I (reigned 240-270 BCE). Neither constellations nor individual star names are mentioned in either the Gathas of Zoroaster or in Old Persian inscriptions of the Achaemenian Period.
The key sources for constellations and star names are the Avestan and Pahlavi texts. The Avestan texts are earlier than the Pahlavi texts. The Avesta was committed to writing perhaps circa 3rd-cenrury BCE. (The present text of the Avesta was compiled circa 3rd- to 7th-century CE from texts that survived destruction during the conquest of Persia by the Macedonian general Alexander the Great.) The Bundahishn was compiled circa 9th-century CE from earlier texts.
In the earliest material incorporated into the Avesta there are a few references that indicate the existence of some sort of observational astronomy. There are individual yashts dedicated to the sun, moon, Sirius, and Mithras. See yashts 6 to the sun, yashts 7 to the moon, yashts to Tishtya (= Sirius) and yashts 10 to Mithra. The oldest extant Old Iranian source that makes reference to constellations is the Younger Avesta. It contains the names of two constellations only - the modern-day constellation Ursa Major (Great Bear) and the modern-day asterism Pleiades. From the names 'the seven marks/having seven marks' for Ursa Major and 'first' for the Pleiades they are clearly indigenous Iranian constellations. (Antonio Panaino states that the only constellations clearly attested in the Avestan texts are Haptoiringa with 'Ursa Major,' Tištryaeini with 'Canis Minor,' and Paoiryaeini with the 'Pleiades.') The date of the first identification of Iranian constellation names is uncertain but it is thought that they can be placed in a prehistoric period of the eastern Iranian world. In the later Avestan literature, however, both constellations and star names are mentioned. These include the star Sirius, the constellation Ursa Major, the Pleiades (yashts 8:12), and the Milky Way. (There is an Avestan yashts addressed to the Milky Way (which is personified as feminine).)
Four so-called royal stars are mentioned in Siroza (Hymn) 1 and Siroza (Hymn) 2 forming part of the Khorda Avesta. These are Tishtya, Vanant (or Wanand), Satavaesa (or Sadwes), and the Haptoiringas (or Haftoreng). Only 2 of the 4 can be reasonably identified (i.e., Tishtya with the star Sirius, and Haftoreng with the stars of Ursa Major. However, many popular publications still proceed to identify Aldebaran, Antares, Formalhaut, and Regulus as the four royal stars of Persia. This error is obviously based on the 105 year old book Star Names by the amateur American star-lorist Richard Allen. (The identification Aldebaran, Antares, Formalhaut, and Regulus was first proposed by the 18th-century French astronomer and historian Jean Bailly.)
The various identifications made of the so-called four royal stars are: Tishtya has been variously identified as Aldebaran, Sirius, Arcturus, and the Summer Solstice. Vanant (or Wanand) has been variously identified as Regulus, Vega, Altair (earlier Corvus), Sirius, and Procyon. Satavaesa (or Sadwes) has been variously identified as Antares, Aldebaran, the stars of Musca Australis (the actual constellation being invented circa 1595), and Crux. The Haptoiringas (or Haftoreng) have been variously identified as Formalhaut, and Ursa Major.
The association of the benevolent Indo-Iranian god Tishtrya with the star Sirius occurred during the Achaemenid Period.
The Mesopotamian idea of associating stars with cardinal directions is reflected in Iranian texts such as the Pahlavi Bundahishn. It can be reasonably speculated that the Iranian (Persian) association of the four so-called royal stars and cardinal directions found in the Pahlavi Bundahishn likely comes from Mesopotamian astronomy. (The Pahlavi Bundahishn is a Zoroastrian text dating from the early Sassanian Period. Considerable attention was given to astronomy during the Sassanian Period. The Bundahishn itself is actually a ninth-century (Medieval) compilation of earlier material. However, the Pahlavi texts also preserve large summaries and translations of lost Avestan texts. The astronomy of the Bundahishn is elementary and basically Indian in origin.) The Mul.Apin series associates a constellation with each of the cardinal directions. In the Mul.Apin Series Ursa Major ('wagon') is associated with the north, Piscis Austrinus ('fish') is associated with the west, Scorpius ('scorpion') is associated with the east, and Perseus ('old man') and Pleiades ('bristle') with the east. According to Walter Henning, in the Pahlavi Bundahishn Sirius (Tishtrya) is the general of the east, alpha Scorpii (Sadwes) is the general of the south, alpha Lyrae (Wanand) is the general of the west, and Ursa Major (Haftoreng) is the general of the north. (In both Mesopotamia and Iran (Persia) the constellation Ursa Major is associated with the north.)
The first two Sassanian kings (3rd-century CE) sponsored Pahlavi translations of both Greek and Sanskrit works on astronomy and astrology.
By the Sassanian Period the concept of the Zodiac had been borrowed from Greece. (The 12 signs of the zodiac correspond in concept to the Greek designations.) The 5th chapter of the Pahlavi Bundahishn (which dates to the Islamic Period) contains the names of the 12 signs of the Greek zodiac. (The Bundahishn is a Persian encyclopedia that was completed in 1178 CE.)
The Indian system of lunar mansions was introduced into Iran (Persia) circa 500 CE. When the system of the lunar mansions (naksatras) was introduced into Iran (Persia) from India a completely new set of names was created for them. We have lists of the Iranian lunar mansions from 4 different sources. The Pahlavi Bundahishn contains a detailed discussion of the naksatras. (The number of lunar mansions listed in the Pahlavi Bundahishn is 27.)
Takht-e Solaymân is the largest complex from the Sassanian era ever discovered. A cosmic throne-room is mentioned as historic fact in accounts of the capture of the Sassanian residential complex When Byzantine soldiers under Heraclius (the Emperor of Byzantine) conquered the Sassanian complex of Takht-e Solaymân (= the old city of Shiz [Ganzak/Ganjak] in west Azarbaijan (alternatively Azerbijan) Province) in 624 CE they reported the existence of what we term today a planetarium. In a structure called Takht-e Taqdis (or Takht-i Taqdis) ("The Throne of the Dome") the soldiers found representations of the sun, moon, planets, and stars moving across the ceiling of a domed throne room. (Apparently there was a complex system of gears and another room contained horses to drive the system.) The soldiers also reported rain falling from holes in the simulated sky to the accompanying sounds of thunder. Because they believed the Persians and their Zoroastrian religion were pagan the throne room was destroyed by the invading soldiers. The existence of the planetarium is associated with the Sassanian King Khusru II, who was contemporary with Heraclius. The various sources recording the story actually vary regarding whether the cosmic room was in a palace or fire temple. However, the planetarium is mentioned as historic fact. (See: Studies on the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship by Hans L'Orange (1953, Reprinted 1982); Chapter 2: Khusrau's Cosmic Hall; Pages 18-27.)
The origin of the planetarium probably goes back to the Classical Period. Cicero, in the first century BCE, wrote of two "spheres" built by Archimedes that Marcellus (the Roman consul who conquered Syracuse in 212 BCE) looted from Syracuse and brought to Rome. One was a solid sphere on which were engraved or painted the stars and constellations. Marcellus placed this in the Temple of Virtue. (Such celestial globes predate Archimedes by several hundred years and Cicero credits the Thales and Eudoxus with first constructing them.) The second sphere, which Marcellus kept for himself, was a planetarium: a mechanical model which shows the motions of the sun, moon, and planets as viewed from the earth. Cicero writes that Archimedes must have been "endowed with greater genius that one would imagine it possible for a human being to possess" to be able to build such an unprecedented device.
Appendix 1:
In the Pahlavi Bundahishn Ohrmazd appointed 4 generals, one for each of the four directions, and one general of generals over the 4 generals. In effect the 4 generals are quadrant commanders exercising jurisdiction over the various parts of the sky, all under the chief commander Haftoring (Ursa Major (Great Bear)) is the general commanding the north, Tištar (Tištrya) (Sirius) is the general commanding the east, Sadwes (Satavesa) [Star/Asterism=?] is the general commanding the south, Wanand (Vanant) [Star/Asterism=?] is the general commanding the west, and Mex i Gah (Polaris (the peg in the centre of the sky)) is the chief commander over all 4 generals.
Appendix 2:
It is very probable that the Avestan Tištar (Tištrya) (Sirius) corresponds to the Vedic Tisya (Tishya).
Appendix 3: The Celestial Bow and Arrow
Antonio Panaino identifies Tištrya as an important Old Iranian astral divine being that is to be identified with Sirius (the brightest star in the sky). The 8th hymn (Tišar Yašt) of the Later Avestan corpus was dedicated to Tištrya.
Bernhard Forssman has proposed an entymological explanation showing it is most likely that the Vedic Tisya corresponds to the Avestan Tištrya, and that Sirius has a direct and clear relationship with the three stars of Orion’s belt. In several mythological passages in Vedic literature the three stars comprising the asterism of Orion’s belt were represented as an arrow shot by Tisya. In the Avestan Yast 8.6-7 and 37-38 Tištrya flies in the sky as the arrow shot by their Aryan hero archer.
The Chinese have a Bow and Arrow constellation formed by the same stars as the Mespotamian Bow and Arrow constellations. The celestial Emperor (i.e., mythical ancient Emperors) shot an arrow at the sky jackal (Sirius).
In later Egypt, on the round zodiac of Denderah the Egyptian divine archeress, Satit (one of two wives of Khnumu), shoots her arrow at Sirius.
The Mesopotamian had constellations comprising of Bow and Arrow (mul BAN and mul KAK.SI.DI). Sirius is KAK.SI.DI the Arrow Star (specifically the tip of the arrow). The Bow is formed from the stars of Argo and Canis Major. The MUL.APIN text states "the Bow Star is the Ishtar of Elam, daughter of Enlil." The Mesopotamian Bow and Arrow constellations are identifiable as the original source for the Iranian, Indian, Chinese, and Egyptian Bow and Arrow schemes.
Copyright © 2007-2008 by Gary D. Thompson
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